CSC 213 Chapter 8, Fall 2007

1  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 8 - Operator Overloading Outline 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Fundamentals of Operator Overloading 8.3 Restrictions on Operator Overloading 8.4 Operator Functions as Class Members vs. as friend Functions 8.5 Overloading Stream-Insertion and Stream-Extraction Operators 8.6 Overloading Unary Operators 8.7 Overloading Binary Operators 8.8 Case Study: An Array Class 8.9 Converting between Types 8.10 Case Study: A String Class 8.11 Overloading ++ and -- 8.12 Case Study: A Date Class 2  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.1 Introduction • Operator overloading – Enabling C++’s operators to work with class objects – Using traditional operators with user-defined objects – Requires great care; when overloading is misused, program difficult to understand – Examples of already overloaded operators • Operator << is both the stream-insertion operator and the bitwise left-shift operator • + and -, perform arithmetic on multiple types – Compiler generates the appropriate code based on the manner in which the operator is used 3  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.2 Fundamentals of Operator Overloading • Overloading an operator – Write function definition as normal – Function name is keyword operator followed by the symbol for the operator being overloaded – operator+ used to overload the addition operator (+) • Using operators – To use an operator on a class object it must be overloaded unless the assignment operator(=)or the address operator(&) • Assignment operator by default performs memberwise assignment • Address operator (&) by default returns the address of an object 4  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.3 Restrictions on Operator Overloading • C++ operators that can be overloaded • C++ Operators that cannot be overloaded Operators that cannot be overloaded . .* :: ?: sizeof Operators that can be overloaded + - * / % ^ & | ~ ! = < > += -= *= /= %= ^= &= |= << >> >>= <<= == != <= >= && || ++ -- ->* , -> [] () new delete new[] delete[] 5  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.3 Restrictions on Operator Overloading • Overloading restrictions – Precedence of an operator cannot be changed – Associativity of an operator cannot be changed – Arity (number of operands) cannot be changed • Unary operators remain unary, and binary operators remain binary • Operators &, *, + and - each have unary and binary versions • Unary and binary versions can be overloaded separately • No new operators can be created – Use only existing operators • No overloading operators for built-in types – Cannot change how two integers are added – Produces a syntax error 6  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.4 Operator Functions as Class Members vs. as friend Functions • Member vs non-member – Operator functions can be member or non-member functions – When overloading ( ), [ ], -> or any of the assignment operators, must use a member function • Operator functions as member functions – Leftmost operand must be an object (or reference to an object) of the class • If left operand of a different type, operator function must be a non-member function • Operator functions as non-member functions – Must be friends if needs to access private or protected members – Enable the operator to be commutative 7  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.5 Overloading Stream-Insertion and Stream-Extraction Operators • Overloaded << and >> operators – Overloaded to perform input/output for user-defined types – Left operand of types ostream & and istream & – Must be a non-member function because left operand is not an object of the class – Must be a friend function to access private data members  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 8 Outline 1. Class definition 1.1 Function definitions 1 // Fig. 8.3: fig08_03.cpp 2 // Overloading the stream-insertion and 3 // stream-extraction operators. 4 #include <iostream> 5 6 using std::cout; 7 using std::cin; 8 using std::endl; 9 using std::ostream; 10 using std::istream; 11 12 #include <iomanip> 13 14 using std::setw; 15 16 class PhoneNumber { 17 friend ostream &operator<<( ostream&, const PhoneNumber & ); 18 friend istream &operator>>( istream&, PhoneNumber & ); 19 20 private: 21 char areaCode[ 4 ]; // 3-digit area code and null 22 char exchange[ 4 ]; // 3-digit exchange and null 23 char line[ 5 ]; // 4-digit line and null 24 }; 25 26 // Overloaded stream-insertion operator (cannot be 27 // a member function if we would like to invoke it with 28 // cout << somePhoneNumber;). 29 ostream &operator<<( ostream &output, const PhoneNumber &num ) 30 { Notice function prototypes for overloaded operators >> and << They must be friend functions.  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 9 Outline 1.1 Function definition 1.2 Initialize variables 2. Get input 2.1 Assign to object 2.2 Output data 31 output << "(" << num.areaCode << ") " 32 << num.exchange << "-" << num.line; 33 return output; // enables cout << a << b << c; 34 } 35 36 istream &operator>>( istream &input, PhoneNumber &num ) 37 { 38 input.ignore(); // skip ( 39 input >> setw( 4 ) >> num.areaCode; // input area code 40 input.ignore( 2 ); // skip ) and space 41 input >> setw( 4 ) >> num.exchange; // input exchange 42 input.ignore(); // skip dash (-) 43 input >> setw( 5 ) >> num.line; // input line 44 return input; // enables cin >> a >> b >> c; 45 } 46 47 int main() 48 { 49 PhoneNumber phone; // create object phone 50 51 cout << "Enter phone number in the form (123) 456-7890:\n"; 52 53 // cin >> phone invokes operator>> function by 54 // issuing the call operator>>( cin, phone ). 55 cin >> phone; 56 57 // cout << phone invokes operator<< function by 58 // issuing the call operator<<( cout, phone ). 59 cout << "The phone number entered was: " << phone << endl; 60 return 0; 61 } The function call cin >> phone; interpreted as operator>>(cin, phone); input is an alias for cin, and num is an alias for phone.  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 10 Outline Program Output Enter phone number in the form (123) 456-7890: (800) 555-1212 The phone number entered was: (800) 555-1212 11  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.6 Overloading Unary Operators • Overloading unary operators – Can be overloaded with no arguments or one argument – Should usually be implemented as member functions • Avoid friend functions and classes because they violate the encapsulation of a class – Example declaration as a member function: class String { public: bool operator!() const; ... }; 12  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.6 Overloading Unary Operators – Example declaration as a non-member function class String { friend bool operator!( const String & ) ... } 13  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.7 Overloading Binary Operators • Overloaded Binary operators – Non-static member function, one argument – Example: class String { public: const String &operator+=( const String & ); ... }; – y += z is equivalent to y.operator+=( z ) 14  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.7 Overloading Binary Operators – Non-member function, two arguments – Example: class String { friend const String &operator+=( String &, const String & ); ... }; – y += z is equivalent to operator+=( y, z ) 15  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.8 Case Study: An Array class • Implement an Array class with – Range checking – Array assignment – Arrays that know their size – Outputting/inputting entire arrays with << and >> – Array comparisons with == and !=  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 16 Outline 1. Class definition 1.1 Function prototypes 1 // Fig. 8.4: array1.h 2 // Simple class Array (for integers) 3 #ifndef ARRAY1_H 4 #define ARRAY1_H 5 6 #include <iostream> 7 8 using std::ostream; 9 using std::istream; 10 11 class Array { 12 friend ostream &operator<<( ostream &, const Array & ); 13 friend istream &operator>>( istream &, Array & ); 14 public: 15 Array( int = 10 ); // default constructor 16 Array( const Array & ); // copy constructor 17 ~Array(); // destructor 18 int getSize() const; // return size 19 const Array &operator=( const Array & ); // assign arrays 20 bool operator==( const Array & ) const; // compare equal 21 22 // Determine if two arrays are not equal and 23 // return true, otherwise return false (uses operator==). 24 bool operator!=( const Array &right ) const 25 { return ! ( *this == right ); } 26 27 int &operator[]( int ); // subscript operator 28 const int &operator[]( int ) const; // subscript operator 29 static int getArrayCount(); // Return count of 30 // arrays instantiated. 31 private: 32 int size; // size of the array 33 int *ptr; // pointer to first element of array 34 static int arrayCount; // # of Arrays instantiated Notice all the overloaded operators used to implement the class.  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 17 Outline 1. Load header 1.1 Function definitions 1.2 Array constructor 35 }; 36 37 #endif 38 // Fig 8.4: array1.cpp 39 // Member function definitions for class Array 40 #include <iostream> 41 42 using std::cout; 43 using std::cin; 44 using std::endl; 45 46 #include <iomanip> 47 48 using std::setw; 49 50 #include <cstdlib> 51 #include <cassert> 52 #include "array1.h" 53 54 // Initialize static data member at file scope 55 int Array::arrayCount = 0; // no objects yet 56 57 // Default constructor for class Array (default size 10) 58 Array::Array( int arraySize ) 59 { 60 size = ( arraySize > 0 ? arraySize : 10 ); 61 ptr = new int[ size ]; // create space for array 62 assert( ptr != 0 ); // terminate if memory not allocated 63 ++arrayCount; // count one more object 64 65 for ( int i = 0; i < size; i++ ) 66 ptr[ i ] = 0; // initialize array  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 18 Outline 1.3 Array destructor 1.4 operator= (assignment) 67 } 68 69 // Copy constructor for class Array 70 // must receive a reference to prevent infinite recursion 71 Array::Array( const Array &init ) : size( init.size ) 72 { 73 ptr = new int[ size ]; // create space for array 74 assert( ptr != 0 ); // terminate if memory not allocated 75 ++arrayCount; // count one more object 76 77 for ( int i = 0; i < size; i++ ) 78 ptr[ i ] = init.ptr[ i ]; // copy init into object 79 } 80 81 // Destructor for class Array 82 Array::~Array() 83 { 84 delete [] ptr; // reclaim space for array 85 --arrayCount; // one fewer object 86 } 87 88 // Get the size of the array 89 int Array::getSize() const { return size; } 90 91 // Overloaded assignment operator 92 // const return avoids: ( a1 = a2 ) = a3 93 const Array &Array::operator=( const Array &right ) 94 { 95 if ( &right != this ) { // check for self-assignment 96 97 // for arrays of different sizes, deallocate original 98 // left side array, then allocate new left side array. 99 if ( size != right.size ) { 100 delete [] ptr; // reclaim space  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 19 Outline 1.5 operator== (equality) 1.6 operator[] (subscript for non- const arrays) 101 size = right.size; // resize this object 102 ptr = new int[ size ]; // create space for array copy 103 assert( ptr != 0 ); // terminate if not allocated 104 } 105 106 for ( int i = 0; i < size; i++ ) 107 ptr[ i ] = right.ptr[ i ]; // copy array into object 108 } 109 110 return *this; // enables x = y = z; 111} 112 113// Determine if two arrays are equal and 114// return true, otherwise return false. 115bool Array::operator==( const Array &right ) const 116{ 117 if ( size != right.size ) 118 return false; // arrays of different sizes 119 120 for ( int i = 0; i < size; i++ ) 121 if ( ptr[ i ] != right.ptr[ i ] ) 122 return false; // arrays are not equal 123 124 return true; // arrays are equal 125} 126 127// Overloaded subscript operator for non-const Arrays 128// reference return creates an lvalue 129int &Array::operator[]( int subscript ) 130{ 131 // check for subscript out of range error 132 assert( 0 <= subscript && subscript < size );  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 20 Outline 1.6 operator[] (subscript for const arrays) 1.7 getArrayCount 1.8 operator>> (input array) 1.9 operator<< (output array) 133 134 return ptr[ subscript ]; // reference return 135} 136 137// Overloaded subscript operator for const Arrays 138// const reference return creates an rvalue 139const int &Array::operator[]( int subscript ) const 140{ 141 // check for subscript out of range error 142 assert( 0 <= subscript && subscript < size ); 143 144 return ptr[ subscript ]; // const reference return 145} 146 147// Return the number of Array objects instantiated 148// static functions cannot be const 149int Array::getArrayCount() { return arrayCount; } 150 151// Overloaded input operator for class Array; 152// inputs values for entire array. 153istream &operator>>( istream &input, Array &a ) 154{ 155 for ( int i = 0; i < a.size; i++ ) 156 input >> a.ptr[ i ]; 157 158 return input; // enables cin >> x >> y; 159} 160 161// Overloaded output operator for class Array 162ostream &operator<<( ostream &output, const Array &a ) 163{  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 21 Outline 1. Load header 164 int i; 165 166 for ( i = 0; i < a.size; i++ ) { 167 output << setw( 12 ) << a.ptr[ i ]; 168 169 if ( ( i + 1 ) % 4 == 0 ) // 4 numbers per row of output 170 output << endl; 171 } 172 173 if ( i % 4 != 0 ) 174 output << endl; 175 176 return output; // enables cout << x << y; 177} 178// Fig. 8.4: fig08_04.cpp 179// Driver for simple class Array 180#include <iostream> 181 182using std::cout; 183using std::cin; 184using std::endl; 185 186#include "array1.h" 187 188int main() 189{ 190 // no objects yet 191 cout << "# of arrays instantiated = " 192 << Array::getArrayCount() << '\n'; 193 # of arrays instantiated = 0  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 22 Outline 1.1 Initialize objects 2. Function calls 194 // create two arrays and print Array count 195 Array integers1( 7 ), integers2; 196 cout << "# of arrays instantiated = " 197 << Array::getArrayCount() << "\n\n"; 198 199 // print integers1 size and contents 200 cout << "Size of array integers1 is " 201 << integers1.getSize() 202 << "\nArray after initialization:\n" 203 << integers1 << '\n'; 204 205 // print integers2 size and contents 206 cout << "Size of array integers2 is " 207 << integers2.getSize() 208 << "\nArray after initialization:\n" 209 << integers2 << '\n'; 210 211 // input and print integers1 and integers2 212 cout << "Input 17 integers:\n"; 213 cin >> integers1 >> integers2; 214 cout << "After input, the arrays contain:\n" 215 << "integers1:\n" << integers1 216 << "integers2:\n" << integers2 << '\n'; 217 218 // use overloaded inequality (!=) operator 219 cout << "Evaluating: integers1 != integers2\n"; 220 if ( integers1 != integers2 ) 221 cout << "They are not equal\n"; 222 223 // create array integers3 using integers1 as an 224 // initializer; print size and contents 225 Array integers3( integers1 ); 226 # of arrays instantiated = 2 Size of array integers1 is 7 Array after initialization: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Size of array integers2 is 10 Array after initialization: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Input 17 integers: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 After input, the arrays contain: integers1: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 integers2: 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Evaluating: integers1 != integers2 They are not equal  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 23 Outline 227 cout << "\nSize of array integers3 is " 228 << integers3.getSize() 229 << "\nArray after initialization:\n" 230 << integers3 << '\n'; 231 232 // use overloaded assignment (=) operator 233 cout << "Assigning integers2 to integers1:\n"; 234 integers1 = integers2; 235 cout << "integers1:\n" << integers1 236 << "integers2:\n" << integers2 << '\n'; 237 238 // use overloaded equality (==) operator 239 cout << "Evaluating: integers1 == integers2\n"; 240 if ( integers1 == integers2 ) 241 cout << "They are equal\n\n"; 242 243 // use overloaded subscript operator to create rvalue 244 cout << "integers1[5] is " << integers1[ 5 ] << '\n'; 245 246 // use overloaded subscript operator to create lvalue 247 cout << "Assigning 1000 to integers1[5]\n"; 248 integers1[ 5 ] = 1000; 249 cout << "integers1:\n" << integers1 << '\n'; 250 251 // attempt to use out of range subscript 252 cout << "Attempt to assign 1000 to integers1[15]" << endl; 253 integers1[ 15 ] = 1000; // ERROR: out of range 254 255 return 0; 256} Assigning integers2 to integers1: integers1: 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 integers2: 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 2. Function calls Size of array integers3 is 7 Array after initialization: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 integers1[5] is 13 Evaluating: integers1 == integers2 They are equal Assigning 1000 to integers1[5] integers1: 8 9 10 11 12 1000 14 15 16 17 Attempt to assign 1000 to integers1[15] Assertion failed: 0 <= subscript && subscript < size, file Array1.cpp, line 95 abnormal program termination  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 24 Outline Program Output # of arrays instantiated = 0 # of arrays instantiated = 2 Size of array integers1 is 7 Array after initialization: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Size of array integers2 is 10 Array after initialization: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Input 17 integers: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 After input, the arrays contain: integers1: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 integers2: 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Evaluating: integers1 != integers2 They are not equal Size of array integers3 is 7 Array after initialization: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 25 Outline Program Output Evaluating: integers1 == integers2 They are equal integers1[5] is 13 Assigning 1000 to integers1[5] integers1: 8 9 10 11 12 1000 14 15 16 17 Attempt to assign 1000 to integers1[15] Assertion failed: 0 <= subscript && subscript < size, file Array1.cpp, line 95 abnormal program termination Assigning integers2 to integers1: integers1: 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 integers2: 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 26  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.9 Converting between Types • Cast operator – Forces conversions among built-in types – Specifies conversions between user defined and built-in types – Conversion operator must be a non-static member function – Cannot be a friend function – Do not specify return type • Return type is the type to which the object is being converted – For user-defined class A A::operator char *() const; • Declares an overloaded cast operator function for creating a char * out of an A object 27  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.9 Converting between Types A::operator int() const; • Declares an overloaded cast operator function for converting an object of A into an integer A::operator otherClass() const; • Declares an overloaded cast operator function for converting an object of A into an object of otherClass • Compiler and casting – Casting can prevent the need for overloading – If an object s of user-defined class String appears in a program where an ordinary char * is expected, such as cout << s; The compiler calls the overloaded cast operator function operator char * to convert the object into a char * and uses the resulting char * in the expression 28  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 8.10 Case Study: A String Class • Build a class to handle strings – Class string in standard library (more Chapter 19) • Conversion constructor – Single-argument constructors that turn objects of other types into class objects  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 29 Outline 1. Class definition 1.1 Member functions, some definitions 1 // Fig. 8.5: string1.h 2 // Definition of a String class 3 #ifndef STRING1_H 4 #define STRING1_H 5 6 #include <iostream> 7 8 using std::ostream; 9 using std::istream; 10 11 class String { 12 friend ostream &operator<<( ostream &, const String & ); 13 friend istream &operator>>( istream &, String & ); 14 15 public: 16 String( const char * = "" ); // conversion/default ctor 17 String( const String & ); // copy constructor 18 ~String(); // destructor 19 const String &operator=( const String & ); // assignment 20 const String &operator+=( const String & ); // concatenation 21 bool operator!() const; // is String empty? 22 bool operator==( const String & ) const; // test s1 == s2 23 bool operator<( const String & ) const; // test s1 < s2 24 25 // test s1 != s2 26 bool operator!=( const String & right ) const 27 { return !( *this == right ); } 28 29 // test s1 > s2 30 bool operator>( const String &right ) const 31 { return right < *this; } 32 33 // test s1 <= s2  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 30 Outline 1.2 Member variables 34 bool operator<=( const String &right ) const 35 { return !( right < *this ); } 36 37 // test s1 >= s2 38 bool operator>=( const String &right ) const 39 { return !( *this < right ); } 40 41 char &operator[]( int ); // subscript operator 42 const char &operator[]( int ) const; // subscript operator 43 String operator()( int, int ); // return a substring 44 int getLength() const; // return string length 45 46 private: 47 int length; // string length 48 char *sPtr; // pointer to start of string 49 50 void setString( const char * ); // utility function 51 }; 52 53 #endif 54 // Fig. 8.5: string1.cpp 55 // Member function definitions for class String 56 #include <iostream> 57 58 using std::cout; 59 using std::endl; 60 61 #include <iomanip> 62 63 using std::setw; 64  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 31 Outline 1. Load header 1.1 Function definitions 1.2 Conversion constructor 1.3 Copy constructor 1.4 Destructor 1.5 operator= (assignment) 65 #include <cstring> 66 #include <cassert> 67 #include "string1.h" 68 69 // Conversion constructor: Convert char * to String 70 String::String( const char *s ) : length( strlen( s ) ) 71 { 72 cout << "Conversion constructor: " << s << '\n'; 73 setString( s ); // call utility function 74 } 75 76 // Copy constructor 77 String::String( const String &copy ) : length( copy.length ) 78 { 79 cout << "Copy constructor: " << copy.sPtr << '\n'; 80 setString( copy.sPtr ); // call utility function 81 } 82 83 // Destructor 84 String::~String() 85 { 86 cout << "Destructor: " << sPtr << '\n'; 87 delete [] sPtr; // reclaim string 88 } 89 90 // Overloaded = operator; avoids self assignment 91 const String &String::operator=( const String &right ) 92 { 93 cout << "operator= called\n"; 94 95 if ( &right != this ) { // avoid self assignment Conversion constructor: char * to String. Constructors and destructors will print when called.  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 32 Outline 1.6 operator+= (concatenation) 1.7 operator! (string empty?) 1.8 operator== (equality) 96 delete [] sPtr; // prevents memory leak 97 length = right.length; // new String length 98 setString( right.sPtr ); // call utility function 99 } 100 else 101 cout << "Attempted assignment of a String to itself\n"; 102 103 return *this; // enables cascaded assignments 104} 105 106// Concatenate right operand to this object and 107// store in this object. 108const String &String::operator+=( const String &right ) 109{ 110 char *tempPtr = sPtr; // hold to be able to delete 111 length += right.length; // new String length 112 sPtr = new char[ length + 1 ]; // create space 113 assert( sPtr != 0 ); // terminate if memory not allocated 114 strcpy( sPtr, tempPtr ); // left part of new String 115 strcat( sPtr, right.sPtr ); // right part of new String 116 delete [] tempPtr; // reclaim old space 117 return *this; // enables cascaded calls 118} 119 120// Is this String empty? 121bool String::operator!() const { return length == 0; } 122 123// Is this String equal to right String? 124bool String::operator==( const String &right ) const 125 { return strcmp( sPtr, right.sPtr ) == 0; } 126 127// Is this String less than right String?  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 33 Outline 1.9 operator< (less than) 1.10 operator[] (subscript) 1.11 operator[] (const subscript) 1.12 operator() (return substring) 128bool String::operator<( const String &right ) const 129 { return strcmp( sPtr, right.sPtr ) < 0; } 130 131// Return a reference to a character in a String as an lvalue. 132char &String::operator[]( int subscript ) 133{ 134 // First test for subscript out of range 135 assert( subscript >= 0 && subscript < length ); 136 137 return sPtr[ subscript ]; // creates lvalue 138} 139 140// Return a reference to a character in a String as an rvalue. 141const char &String::operator[]( int subscript ) const 142{ 143 // First test for subscript out of range 144 assert( subscript >= 0 && subscript < length ); 145 146 return sPtr[ subscript ]; // creates rvalue 147} 148 149// Return a substring beginning at index and 150// of length subLength 151String String::operator()( int index, int subLength ) 152{ 153 // ensure index is in range and substring length >= 0 154 assert( index >= 0 && index < length && subLength >= 0 ); 155 156 // determine length of substring 157 int len; 158 Notice the overloaded function call operator.  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 34 Outline 1.13 getLength 1.14 setString 159 if ( ( subLength == 0 ) || ( index + subLength > length ) ) 160 len = length - index; 161 else 162 len = subLength; 163 164 // allocate temporary array for substring and 165 // terminating null character 166 char *tempPtr = new char[ len + 1 ]; 167 assert( tempPtr != 0 ); // ensure space allocated 168 169 // copy substring into char array and terminate string 170 strncpy( tempPtr, &sPtr[ index ], len ); 171 tempPtr[ len ] = '\0'; 172 173 // Create temporary String object containing the substring 174 String tempString( tempPtr ); 175 delete [] tempPtr; // delete the temporary array 176 177 return tempString; // return copy of the temporary String 178} 179 180// Return string length 181int String::getLength() const { return length; } 182 183// Utility function to be called by constructors and 184// assignment operator. 185void String::setString( const char *string2 ) 186{ 187 sPtr = new char[ length + 1 ]; // allocate storage 188 assert( sPtr != 0 ); // terminate if memory not allocated 189 strcpy( sPtr, string2 ); // copy literal to object 190}  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 35 Outline 1.15 operator<< (output String) 1.16 operator>> (input String) ----------------------- 1. Load header 1.1 Initialize objects 191 192// Overloaded output operator 193ostream &operator<<( ostream &output, const String &s ) 194{ 195 output << s.sPtr; 196 return output; // enables cascading 197} 198 199// Overloaded input operator 200istream &operator>>( istream &input, String &s ) 201{ 202 char temp[ 100 ]; // buffer to store input 203 204 input >> setw( 100 ) >> temp; 205 s = temp; // use String class assignment operator 206 return input; // enables cascading 207} 208// Fig. 8.5: fig08_05.cpp 209// Driver for class String 210#include <iostream> 211 212using std::cout; 213using std::endl; 214 215#include "string1.h" 216 217int main() 218{ 219 String s1( "happy" ), s2( " birthday" ), s3; 220 Conversion constructor: happy Conversion constructor: birthday Conversion constructor:  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 36 Outline 2. Function calls 221 // test overloaded equality and relational operators 222 cout << "s1 is \"" << s1 << "\"; s2 is \"" << s2 223 << "\"; s3 is \"" << s3 << '\"' 224 << "\nThe results of comparing s2 and s1:" 225 << "\ns2 == s1 yields " 226 << ( s2 == s1 ? "true" : "false" ) 227 << "\ns2 != s1 yields " 228 << ( s2 != s1 ? "true" : "false" ) 229 << "\ns2 > s1 yields " 230 << ( s2 > s1 ? "true" : "false" ) 231 << "\ns2 < s1 yields " 232 << ( s2 < s1 ? "true" : "false" ) 233 << "\ns2 >= s1 yields " 234 << ( s2 >= s1 ? "true" : "false" ) 235 << "\ns2 <= s1 yields " 236 << ( s2 <= s1 ? "true" : "false" ); 237 238 // test overloaded String empty (!) operator 239 cout << "\n\nTesting !s3:\n"; 240 if ( !s3 ) { 241 cout << "s3 is empty; assigning s1 to s3;\n"; 242 s3 = s1; // test overloaded assignment 243 cout << "s3 is \"" << s3 << "\""; 244 } 245 246 // test overloaded String concatenation operator 247 cout << "\n\ns1 += s2 yields s1 = "; 248 s1 += s2; // test overloaded concatenation 249 cout << s1; 250 251 // test conversion constructor 252 cout << "\n\ns1 += \" to you\" yields\n"; 253 s1 += " to you"; // test conversion constructor s1 is "happy"; s2 is " birthday"; s3 is "" The results of comparing s2 and s1: s2 == s1 yields false s2 != s1 yields true s2 > s1 yields false s2 < s1 yields true s2 >= s1 yields false s2 <= s1 yields true Testing !s3: s3 is empty; assigning s1 to s3; operator= called s3 is "happy" s1 += s2 yields s1 = happy birthday s1 += " to you" yields Conversion constructor: to you Destructor: to you  2000 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Outline 37 Outline 2. Function calls 254 cout << "s1 = " << s1 << "\n\n"; 255 256 // test overloaded function call operator () for substring 257 cout << "The substring of s1 starting at\n" 258 << "location 0 for 14 characters, s1(0, 14), is:\n" 259 << s1( 0, 14 ) << "\n\n"; 260 261 // test substring "to-end-of-String" option 262 cout << "The substring of s1 starting at\n" 263 << "location 15, s1(15, 0), is: " 264 << s1( 15, 0 ) << "\n\n"; // 0 is "to end of string" 265 266 // test copy constructor 267 String *s4Ptr = new String( s1 ); 268 cout << "*s4Ptr = " << *s4Ptr << "\n\n"; 269 270 // test assignment (=) operator with self-assignment 271 cout << "assigning *s4Ptr to *s4Ptr\n"; 272 *s4Ptr = *s4Ptr; // test overloaded assignment 273 cout << "*s4Ptr = " << *s4Ptr << '\n'; 274 275 // test destructor 276 delete s4Ptr; 277 278 // test using subscript operator to create lvalue 279 s1[ 0 ] = 'H'; 280 s1[ 6 ] = 'B'; 281 cout << "\ns1 after s1[0] = 'H' and s1[6] = 'B' is: " 282 << s1 << "\n\n"; 283 s1 = happy birthday