ECN 212 Chapter 20, Spring 2007

11 Chapter 9 Chapter 9 Complex Cognitive Processes Complex Cognitive Processes 22 Conceptual Understanding Conceptual Understanding  Conceptual understanding is a key aspect of Conceptual understanding is a key aspect of learning. learning.  Concepts Concepts are categories that group objects, are categories that group objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties. common properties.  An important aspect of concept formation is An important aspect of concept formation is learning the key features, attributes, or learning the key features, attributes, or characteristics of the concept. characteristics of the concept.  One of the main teaching goals is to help One of the main teaching goals is to help students understand concepts rather than just students understand concepts rather than just memorize facts. memorize facts. 33 Conceptual Understanding (Cont’d) Conceptual Understanding (Cont’d)  Concepts aid the process of remembering, Concepts aid the process of remembering, making it more efficient. They help students to making it more efficient. They help students to simplify and summaries information, as well as to simplify and summaries information, as well as to improve the efficiency of their memory, improve the efficiency of their memory, communication , and use of time. communication , and use of time.  Students form concepts through direct Students form concepts through direct experiences with objects and events in their experiences with objects and events in their world as well as symbols (formulas, graphs, world as well as symbols (formulas, graphs, pictures). pictures).  Some concepts are relatively simple, clear and Some concepts are relatively simple, clear and concrete , whereas others are more complex, concrete , whereas others are more complex, fuzzy and abstract. fuzzy and abstract. 44 Promoting Concept Formation Promoting Concept Formation  Identify the features of a concept. Use the rule- Identify the features of a concept. Use the rule- example strategy. example strategy. The strategy consists of four steps: The strategy consists of four steps: 1. Define the concept and give clear 1. Define the concept and give clear examples. examples. 2. Clarify terms in the definition 2. Clarify terms in the definition 3. Give examples to illustrate the key 3. Give examples to illustrate the key features or characteristics. Provide clear, features or characteristics. Provide clear, concrete examples. Relate new concepts concrete examples. Relate new concepts to already-known concepts to already-known concepts 4. Provide additional examples. 4. Provide additional examples. 55 Promoting Concept Formation (Cont’d) Promoting Concept Formation (Cont’d)  Create concepts maps .Concept maps offer a Create concepts maps .Concept maps offer a visual representation of a concept’s hierarchical visual representation of a concept’s hierarchical organization. organization.  Develop hypotheses about what the concept is Develop hypotheses about what the concept is and what it is not. Help students learn what a and what it is not. Help students learn what a concept is and what it is not. concept is and what it is not.  Prototype matching compares the item with similar Prototype matching compares the item with similar items in a category. Prototype matching refers to items in a category. Prototype matching refers to when students engage in a decision-making when students engage in a decision-making process about whether an item belongs to a process about whether an item belongs to a category. category. Concept Map Concept Map 66 77 Thinking Thinking  Thinking involves manipulating and transforming Thinking involves manipulating and transforming information in memory. information in memory.  We think to form concepts,reason,think We think to form concepts,reason,think critically,make decisions, think creatively, and critically,make decisions, think creatively, and solve problems. solve problems.  Students can think about the concrete and the Students can think about the concrete and the abstract;about the past and the future ; about abstract;about the past and the future ; about reality and the fantasy reality and the fantasy 88 Reasoning Reasoning  Reasoning is logical thinking that uses induction and Reasoning is logical thinking that uses induction and deduction to reach a conclusion. deduction to reach a conclusion.  Inductive reasoning Inductive reasoning involves reasoning from the involves reasoning from the specific to the general. That is , it consists of drawing specific to the general. That is , it consists of drawing conclusions (forming concepts) about all members of a conclusions (forming concepts) about all members of a category based on observing only some of its members. category based on observing only some of its members. When a student is asked whether a concept in math When a student is asked whether a concept in math class applies to other contexts , such as business or class applies to other contexts , such as business or science, inductive reasoning is called for. science, inductive reasoning is called for.  Deductive reasoning Deductive reasoning involves reasoning from the involves reasoning from the general to the specific. When you solve puzzles, you are general to the specific. When you solve puzzles, you are engaging in reasoning. When you learn about a general engaging in reasoning. When you learn about a general rule and then understand how it applies in similar rule and then understand how it applies in similar situations but not others, you are engaging in deductive situations but not others, you are engaging in deductive reasoning. reasoning. 99 Critical Thinking Critical Thinking  Critical thinking Critical thinking involves thinking reflectively involves thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence. and productively and evaluating the evidence.  Mindfulness Mindfulness is a key to critical thinking. is a key to critical thinking. Mindfulness means being alert, mentally Mindfulness means being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going present, and cognitively flexible while going through life’s everyday activities and tasks through life’s everyday activities and tasks ( Ellen Langer ,1997,2005). ( Ellen Langer ,1997,2005).  Mindful students create new ideas, are open to Mindful students create new ideas, are open to new information, and are aware of more than new information, and are aware of more than one perspective. one perspective.  Mindless students accept what they read or hear Mindless students accept what they read or hear without questioning the accuracy of the without questioning the accuracy of the information. Mindless students become trapped information. Mindless students become trapped in rigid mindsets, not taking into account in rigid mindsets, not taking into account possible variation in contexts and perspectives. possible variation in contexts and perspectives. 10 10 Critical Thinking (Cont’d) Critical Thinking (Cont’d) Langer emphasizes that asking good questions is an important ingredient of mindful thinking. Langer stresses that it is important to stress on the process of learning rather than the outcome. 11 11 Decision Making Decision Making  Decision making- Decision making- involves thinking in which involves thinking in which individuals evaluate alternatives and make individuals evaluate alternatives and make choices among them. choices among them.  Biases and flaws that affect our decision- Biases and flaws that affect our decision- making making  Confirmation bias- Confirmation bias- the tendency to search for the tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them rather than refutes them  Belief perseverance Belief perseverance - the tendency to hold on - the tendency to hold on to a belief in the face of contradictory evidence to a belief in the face of contradictory evidence 12 12 Decision Making (Cont’d) Decision Making (Cont’d)  Overconfidence bias Overconfidence bias - - The tendency to have The tendency to have more confidence in judgments and decisions more confidence in judgments and decisions than we should, based on past experience than we should, based on past experience  Hindsight bias Hindsight bias - the tendency to falsely report, - the tendency to falsely report, after the fact, that we accurately predicted the after the fact, that we accurately predicted the event. event. People not only are overconfident about what People not only are overconfident about what they predict will happen in the future they predict will happen in the future (overconfidence bias), but also tend to overrate (overconfidence bias), but also tend to overrate their past performances at prediction. their past performances at prediction. 13 13 Creative Thinking Creative Thinking  An important aspect of thinking is to be able to think An important aspect of thinking is to be able to think creatively. creatively.  Creative Thinking Creative Thinking is the ability to think about something is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique in novel and unusual ways and come up with unique solutions to problems. solutions to problems.  Guilford Guilford distinguished between distinguished between convergent and convergent and divergent thinking. divergent thinking.  Convergent Thinking: Convergent Thinking: Produces one correct answer, Produces one correct answer, and a characteristic of the kind of thinking required on and a characteristic of the kind of thinking required on conventional intelligence tests. conventional intelligence tests.  Divergent Thinking: Divergent Thinking: Produces many answers to the Produces many answers to the same question, and is more characteristic of creativity. same question, and is more characteristic of creativity. 14 14 Ways to Improve Creativity Ways to Improve Creativity  Encourage Creative Thinking on an Individual and Group Encourage Creative Thinking on an Individual and Group Basis. Basis.  Involve Creative People. Involve Creative People.  Encourage Internal Motivation. Encourage Internal Motivation.  Provide Stimulating Environments. Provide Stimulating Environments.  Don’t Over control Students. Don’t Over control Students.  Foster Flexible and Playful Thinking Foster Flexible and Playful Thinking 15 15 Problem Solving Problem Solving  Problem Solving Problem Solving involves finding an appropriate way involves finding an appropriate way to attain a goal. to attain a goal.  Steps in solving problems: Steps in solving problems: 1. 1. Find and frame problems: Find and frame problems: Today teachers Today teachers recognized that they need to teach students the recognized that they need to teach students the real-world skill of identifying problems instead of real-world skill of identifying problems instead of offering clear-cut problems to be solved. offering clear-cut problems to be solved. Students should have the opportunities to locate Students should have the opportunities to locate and refine problems that need to be solved. and refine problems that need to be solved. The teachers can serve as a guide and a consultant The teachers can serve as a guide and a consultant in helping them to frame a meaningfully problem in helping them to frame a meaningfully problem and to clearly define it. and to clearly define it. 16 16 2. 2. Develop good strategies: Develop good strategies: Once you define and Once you define and identify a problem, students need to develop identify a problem, students need to develop strategies for solving it. strategies for solving it. Among the effective strategies are setting Among the effective strategies are setting subgoals,using algorithms, and relying on subgoals,using algorithms, and relying on heuristics. heuristics.  Subgoaling: Subgoaling: involves setting intermediate goals involves setting intermediate goals that put students in a better position to reach the that put students in a better position to reach the final goal or solution. final goal or solution.  Algorithms: Algorithms: are strategies that guarantee a are strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem. Algorithms come in solution to a problem. Algorithms come in different forms, such as formulas ,instructions , different forms, such as formulas ,instructions , and test of all possible solutions. and test of all possible solutions.  Means-ends analysis: Means-ends analysis: is a heuristic in which is a heuristic in which one identifies the goal (end) of a problem, assess one identifies the goal (end) of a problem, assess the current situation, and evaluates what needs the current situation, and evaluates what needs to be done (means) to decrease the difference to be done (means) to decrease the difference between the two conditions. between the two conditions. 17 17  Heuristics Heuristics are strategies or rules of thumb that are strategies or rules of thumb that suggest solutions to a problem, but do not ensure they suggest solutions to a problem, but do not ensure they will work. will work.  Availability heuristic Availability heuristic - - A prediction about the A prediction about the probability of an event based on the event’s past probability of an event based on the event’s past occurrences occurrences  Representativeness heuristic Representativeness heuristic - Faulty decisions - Faulty decisions based on how well something matches a prototype- based on how well something matches a prototype- that is ,the most common or representative example, that is ,the most common or representative example, rather than its relevance to a situation rather than its relevance to a situation 18 18 3. 3. Evaluate solutions: Evaluate solutions: Once we solve the Once we solve the problem, we might not know whether our problem, we might not know whether our solution is effective unless we evaluate it. solution is effective unless we evaluate it. 4. 4. Rethink and redefine problems and Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time: solutions over time: An important step in An important step in problem solving is to continually rethink and problem solving is to continually rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time. redefine problems and solutions over time. 19 19 Obstacles to Problem Solving Obstacles to Problem Solving  Fixation: Fixation: is when you are fixated on a particular is when you are fixated on a particular strategy for solving a problem and fail to examine a strategy for solving a problem and fail to examine a fresh perspective. fresh perspective.  Functional fixedness is a type of fixation in which an Functional fixedness is a type of fixation in which an individual fails to solve a problem because he or she individual fails to solve a problem because he or she views the element in terms of their usual functions. views the element in terms of their usual functions.  A mental set up is a type of fixation in which the A mental set up is a type of fixation in which the individual tries to solve a problem in a way that has individual tries to solve a problem in a way that has worked in the past. worked in the past.  Lack of motivation: Lack of motivation: Some students may have great Some students may have great problem-solving abilities, but are not motivated to use problem-solving abilities, but are not motivated to use them. They lack persistence. them. They lack persistence.  Inadequate emotional control: Inadequate emotional control: Emotions can facilitate Emotions can facilitate or restrict problem solving. Too much anxiety or fear can or restrict problem solving. Too much anxiety or fear can restrict a student’s ability to solve a problem. restrict a student’s ability to solve a problem. 20 20 Developmental Changes Developmental Changes One way that developmental changes in problem solving have been studied is called the rule-assessment approach. Even young children begin to use rules to Even young children begin to use rules to solve problems. solve problems. During early childhood a child becomes During early childhood a child becomes capable of more flexible, goal directed capable of more flexible, goal directed problem solving. problem solving. 21 21 Developmental Changes (Cont’d) Developmental Changes (Cont’d)  At about 4 years of age, children acquire the concept of At about 4 years of age, children acquire the concept of perspectives, which allows them to appreciate that a perspectives, which allows them to appreciate that a single thing can be described in different ways. single thing can be described in different ways.  Children become better planners during the elementary Children become better planners during the elementary and secondary school years. and secondary school years.  They learn more effective strategies that help them solve They learn more effective strategies that help them solve problems and have more accumulated knowledge problems and have more accumulated knowledge (metacognitive strategies). (metacognitive strategies).  Adolescents have an increased capacity to monitor and Adolescents have an increased capacity to monitor and manage their resources to effectively meet the demands manage their resources to effectively meet the demands of a problem-solving task. They also screen out of a problem-solving task. They also screen out information irrelevant to solving a problem. information irrelevant to solving a problem. 22 22 Problem-Based Learning Problem-Based Learning  Problem-Based Learning Problem-Based Learning emphasizes solving emphasizes solving authentic problems like those that occur in authentic problems like those that occur in daily life. daily life. 1. 1. Provide opportunities to solve real-world Provide opportunities to solve real-world problems problems 2. 2. Monitor effective/ineffective strategies Monitor effective/ineffective strategies 3. 3. Involve parents Involve parents 4. 4. Improve students’ use of rules, knowledge, Improve students’ use of rules, knowledge, and strategies and strategies 5. 5. Use technology effectively Use technology effectively 23 23 Transfer Transfer  Transfer Transfer is applying previous experiences and is applying previous experiences and knowledge to learning or problem solving in a knowledge to learning or problem solving in a new situation. An important complex cognitive new situation. An important complex cognitive goal is for students to be able to apply what they goal is for students to be able to apply what they learn in one situation to new situations. learn in one situation to new situations.  Types of transfer Types of transfer  Near transfer Near transfer is the transfer of learning to a is the transfer of learning to a situation that is similar to the one in which the situation that is similar to the one in which the initial learning took place. initial learning took place.  Example: Near transfer occurs when a student Example: Near transfer occurs when a student learns to type on a typewriter then he transfers learns to type on a typewriter then he transfers this skill to type on a computer. this skill to type on a computer. 24 24 Transfer (Cont’d) Transfer (Cont’d) Far transfer Far transfer is the transfer of learning to a is the transfer of learning to a situation that is different to the one in which the situation that is different to the one in which the initial learning took place. initial learning took place.  Example: If a student gets a job in an architect’s Example: If a student gets a job in an architect’s office and applies what he learned in geometry office and applies what he learned in geometry class to help the architect analyze a spatial class to help the architect analyze a spatial problem different from any problem the student problem different from any problem the student encountered in geometry class, then far transfer encountered in geometry class, then far transfer has occurred. has occurred. 25 25 Transfer (Cont’d) Transfer (Cont’d)  Low road transfer Low road transfer is the automatic, often is the automatic, often unconscious, transfer of learning to a new unconscious, transfer of learning to a new situation situation..  Example: When competent readers encounter Example: When competent readers encounter new sentences in their native language , they new sentences in their native language , they read them automatically. read them automatically.  High road transfer High road transfer is conscious and effortful is conscious and effortful transfer of learning to a new situation transfer of learning to a new situation..  Example: A student might learn about the Example: A student might learn about the concept of subgoaling (setting intermediate concept of subgoaling (setting intermediate goals) in math, then after several months one goals) in math, then after several months one student thinks about how subgoaling might help student thinks about how subgoaling might help him complete a lengthy homework assignment in him complete a lengthy homework assignment in history. history. 26 26 Transfer (Cont’d) Transfer (Cont’d) Forward-reaching transfer Forward-reaching transfer : :Occurs when Occurs when student thinks about how to use student thinks about how to use information in a new situation. From the information in a new situation. From the current situation students look forward to current situation students look forward to how they are going to apply information to how they are going to apply information to a new situation. a new situation. Backward-reaching transfer : Backward-reaching transfer :Occurs Occurs when students look back to previous when students look back to previous situations for information to solve situations for information to solve problems in a new context. problems in a new context.