EDUC 215 Chapter 13, Fall 2009

11 Ch 13 Ch 13 Motivation, Teaching, and Motivation, Teaching, and Learning Learning 22 Motivation, Teaching, and Learning Motivation, Teaching, and Learning Exploring motivation Perspective on motivation What is motivation 33 Motivation Motivation Motivation involves the processes that Motivation involves the processes that energize, direct, and sustain behavior. energize, direct, and sustain behavior. 44 Perspectives on Motivation Perspectives on Motivation Different psychological perspectives explain Different psychological perspectives explain motivation in different ways. motivation in different ways.  The behavioral perspective The behavioral perspective emphasizes emphasizes external rewards and punishments external rewards and punishments as keys in as keys in determining student motivation. determining student motivation.  Advocates of the use of incentives emphasize Advocates of the use of incentives emphasize that they add interest or excitement to the class that they add interest or excitement to the class and direct attention toward appropriate behavior and direct attention toward appropriate behavior and away from inappropriate behavior. and away from inappropriate behavior. 55 Perspectives on Motivation Perspectives on Motivation The humanistic perspective The humanistic perspective stresses stresses students’ capacity for personal growth, students’ capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose their own destinies, freedom to choose their own destinies, and positive qualities. and positive qualities. This perspective is associated with This perspective is associated with Abraham Maslow’s beliefs that basic Abraham Maslow’s beliefs that basic needs must be met before higher needs needs must be met before higher needs can be satisfied. can be satisfied. 66 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, individuals’ needs must be satisfied in this individuals’ needs must be satisfied in this sequence: sequence:  Physiological :Hunger, thirst, sleep Physiological :Hunger, thirst, sleep  Safety: Ensuring survival such as protection from Safety: Ensuring survival such as protection from war and crimes. war and crimes.  Love and belongingness: Security, affection, and Love and belongingness: Security, affection, and attention from others. attention from others.  Esteem: Feeling good about oneself. Esteem: Feeling good about oneself.  Self actualization: Realization of one’s potential. Self actualization: Realization of one’s potential. Characteristics of self actualized individuals Characteristics of self actualized individuals include being spontaneous, problem-centered include being spontaneous, problem-centered rather than self-centered and creative. rather than self-centered and creative. 77 Perspectives on Motivation Perspectives on Motivation  The cognitive perspective The cognitive perspective focuses on students’ focuses on students’ competence motivation competence motivation, their internal motivation to , their internal motivation to achieve, their attributions, and their beliefs that they achieve, their attributions, and their beliefs that they can effectively control their environment. can effectively control their environment.  The cognitive perspective stresses that students The cognitive perspective stresses that students thoughts guide their motivation. thoughts guide their motivation.  It stresses the importance of goal setting, planning It stresses the importance of goal setting, planning and monitoring progress toward a goal and monitoring progress toward a goal  The cognitive perspective recommends that The cognitive perspective recommends that students should be given more opportunities and students should be given more opportunities and responsibility for controlling their own achievement responsibility for controlling their own achievement outcome. outcome. 88 Perspectives on Motivation Perspectives on Motivation  The social perspective The social perspective stresses the stresses the need for need for affiliation affiliation or relatedness that involves or relatedness that involves establishing, maintaining, and restoring warm, establishing, maintaining, and restoring warm, close, personal relationships. close, personal relationships.  Students need for affiliation or relatedness is Students need for affiliation or relatedness is reflected in their motivation to spend time with reflected in their motivation to spend time with peers, their classmates, relatives and teachers. peers, their classmates, relatives and teachers.  Students in schools with caring and supportive Students in schools with caring and supportive interpersonal relationships have more positive interpersonal relationships have more positive academic attitudes and values and more academic attitudes and values and more satisfied with school. satisfied with school. 99 Motivation, Teaching, and Learning Motivation, Teaching, and Learning Achievement Processes Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Expectations Attribution Goal-Setting, Planning, and Self-Monitoring Mastery Motivation Self-Efficacy 10 10 Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsically Motivated Students Do something to obtain something else. Are influenced by rewards and punishments. Intrinsically Motivated Students Demonstrate self- determination by doing something for its own sake. Increase motivation when they are given some personal choice. 11 11 How can teachers promote intrinsic motivation? Intrinsic motivation is enhanced when you speak to student interests. Infuse academic instruction with content that is familiar to them and that reflects their interests. Also, when students see the real-world significance of academic concepts, intrinsic motivation is enhanced. Share with them how they will use the things you are teaching them. Challenge them with activities that are appropriate at their skill level, and avoid rewards that will be perceived as controlling. 12 12 Types of intrinsic motivation Self determination and personal choices: In this view, students want to believe that they are doing something because of their own will, not because of external success or rewards. Research results indicated that students in the intrinsic motivation/self determination group ( were given opportunities to set their own goals, plan how to reach the goals and monitor their progress toward the goals) had higher achievement gains and were more likely to graduate from high school compared with a control group. 13 13 Types of intrinsic motivation Optimal Experiences and Flow: Optimal Experiences and Flow: Mihaly Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi ( 1990,1993,2000) developed Csikszentmihalyi ( 1990,1993,2000) developed ideas that are relevant to understanding intrinsic ideas that are relevant to understanding intrinsic motivation) motivation) Optimal experiences involve feelings of deep Optimal experiences involve feelings of deep enjoyment and happiness. enjoyment and happiness. The term flow describe optimal experiences in The term flow describe optimal experiences in life. life. 14 14 Optimal Experiences & Flow Optimal Experiences & Flow Students perceived level of their own skills Students perceived level of their own skills Students perceived level Students perceived level of Challenge of Challenge Flow Flow occurs: occurs: When students When students develop a sense of develop a sense of mastery and are mastery and are absorbed in a state absorbed in a state of concentration while of concentration while they engage in an they engage in an activity. activity. When students are When students are challenged and perceive challenged and perceive that they have a high that they have a high degree of skill. degree of skill. Low Low High High Low Low Apathy Apathy Boredom Boredom High High Anxiety Anxiety Flow Flow 15 15 Types of intrinsic motivation Interest: research on interest has focused on how interest is related to learning. Interest is specifically linked to measures of deep learning, such as recall of main ideas and responses to more difficult comprehension questions than to surface learning such as responses to simple questions and verbatim recall of text. 16 16 Types of intrinsic motivation Cognitive engagement and self responsibility: Phyllis Blumenfield and her colleagues (2006) have proposed another variation of intrinsic motivation. They emphasize the importance of creating learning environments that encourage students to become cognitively engaged and take responsibility for their learning. The goal is to get the students to become motivated to expend the effort to persist and master ideas rather than to get the work done and make passing grades. 17 17 Attribution Theory Attribution Theory Bernard Weiner Bernard Weiner Attribution theory: Attribution theory: In their effort to make sense of their In their effort to make sense of their own behavior or performance, individuals are motivated own behavior or performance, individuals are motivated to discover its underlying causes. to discover its underlying causes. Locus: Locus: Students who perceive their success as being due to Students who perceive their success as being due to internal factors (i.e., effort) are more likely to have higher internal factors (i.e., effort) are more likely to have higher self-esteem. self-esteem. Stability: Stability: If a student attributes a positive outcome to a If a student attributes a positive outcome to a stable cause, there is an expectation of future success. stable cause, there is an expectation of future success. Controllability: Controllability: Failure due to external factors causes anger. Failure due to external factors causes anger. Failure due to internal factors may cause guilt Failure due to internal factors may cause guilt 18 18 Causal attributions for Failure Combination of causal attributions  Internal-stable uncontrollable  Internal-stable controllable  Internal-unstable uncontrollable  Internal-unstable controllable Reasons students give for failure  Low aptitude  Never study  Sick the day of the test  Didn’t study for this particular test 19 19 Causal attributions for Failure Combination of causal attributions  External-stable uncontrollable  External-stable controllable  External-unstable uncontrollable  External-unstable controllable Reasons students give for failure  School has tough requirements  The instructor is biased  Bad luck  Friends failed to help 20 20 Achievement Goal Orientation Researchers have identified mastery as one of three types of achievement orientation: mastery, helplessness and performance. Children with a Mastery Orientation  Focus on the task rather than their ability  Have positive affect (enjoy the challenge)  Generate solution-oriented strategies that improve their performance. Children with a Helpless Orientation  Focus on their personal inadequacies  Attribute their difficulty to lack of ability  Display negative affect such as boredom and anxiety Performance Orientation  Students are concerned with the outcome rather than the process  Winning is what matters and happiness is a result of winning 21 21 Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. Self-efficacy has much in common with mastery motivation and intrinsic motivation Self-efficacy is the belief that I can, helplessness is the belief that I cannot Students learn more from teachers with self- efficacy rather than from those beset by self- doubts. Efficacious schools are pervaded by high expectations and standards for achievement. 22 22 Strategies for improving students self efficacy  Teach specific strategies that can improve their ability to focus on their tasks  Help students develop short- and long-term goals  Give students performance-contingent rewards  Provide students with support from positive adult and peer models  Make sure students are not overly aroused or anxious  Combine strategy training with an emphasis on goals, and give feedback to students on how their learning strategies relate to their performance  Provide students with positive adult and peer models. 23 23 Self-Regulation Encourage and help students … Set both short- and long-term challenging goals Manage time effectively, set priorities, and be organized Monitor progress toward goals 24 24 Motivation, Teaching, and Learning Motivation, social relationship, and sociocultural contexts Social Motives Social Relationship Sociocultural Context 25 25 Social motives and needs affiliation Social motives are needs and desires that are learned through experiences with the social world. The need for affiliation is the motive to be with other people and involves establishing, maintaining, and restoring warm, close, personal relationships. 26 26 Social Relationships Students relationships with parents, peers and friends have a tremendous impact on motivation. Parents Demographic characteristics: Parents with more education are more likely than less educated parents to be involved in their children education. They are more active participants in their children education and have intellectually stimulating materials at home.  When parents time and energy are consumed by other concerns or other people then their child’s motivation suffer.  Living in a single-parent family, having parents who are consumed by their work, and living in a large family can undercut children’s motivation 27 27 Childrearing practices: Has an impact on child’s motivation. Parenting practices that result in improved motivation and achievement are:  Knowing enough about the child to provide the right amount of challenge and support  Providing a positive emotional climate which motivates children to internalize their parents’ values and goals  Modeling motivated achievement behavior, working hard and persisting with effort at challenging tasks 28 28 Provision of specific experiences at home Provision of specific experiences at home have a tremendous impact on child’s motivation such as  Providing reading materials and reading to children.  Children’s skills and work habits are among the best predictors of academic motivation and performance.  Emphasizing academic achievement or sports and providing opportunities and resources for children to participate in activities are important factors that affect achievement and continuing education in adolescence. 29 29 Peers Peers: Peers can affect a student’s motivation through Social Comparison Social competence and motivation Peer co-learning Peer-group influence 30 30 Teachers 31 31 Social Relationships Motivation to Achieve Parents should provide the right amount of challenge in a positive environment and model achievement behavior Peers with high achievement standards will support student achievement in others. Teachers optimize achievement when they provide challenging tasks in a supportive environment. 32 32 Sociocultural Contexts Ethnicity There is DIVERSITY in achievement motivation within ethnic minority groups. Socioeconomic Status (SES) When ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES) are investigated in the same study, SES is often the better predictor of achievement. 33 33 Motivation and Gender Males Have higher competence beliefs in math and sports Are more rambunctious Are more rambunctious Receive more teacher attention, yet receive lower grades List more career options Females Have higher competence beliefs for English, reading, and social activities Often experience conflicts between gender roles and achievement Are more compliant, get less teacher attention, by middle school have lower self-esteem 34 34 Motivation, Teaching, and Learning Students with Achievement Problems Students Who Are Low-Achieving and Have Low Expectations for Success Students Who Protect Their Self-Worth by Avoiding Failure Students Who Procrastinate Students Who Are Uninterested or Alienated Students Who Are Perfectionists Students with High Anxiety 35 35 Nonperformance versus procrastination Nonperformance and procrastination are strategies students engage in that are designed to “protect” their self-worth.  Nonperformance refers to a protective strategy where a student avoids the possibility of failure by not engaging in tasks.  Procrastination involves putting off doing something until the last minute, making it nearly impossible to complete a task in a thorough way. This strategy deflects attention away from the possibility that they are incompetent. 36 36 Failure syndrome Failure syndrome refers to the belief that one lacks the ability to succeed, and therefore one gives up easily when confronted with an obstacle. 37 37 Students with Achievement Problems Low Achievers with Low Expectations Provide reassurance and cognitive retraining, and reward effort and progress toward realistic goals Protection of Self-Worth by Avoiding Failure Guide setting of realistic goals, strengthen link between effort and self-worth, and encourage positive self-perceptions High Anxiety Modify negative thoughts by engaging students in more positive, task-focused thoughts 38 38 Students with Achievement Problems Procrastinators Encourage acknowledgement of problem, assist in time management and task analysis, and teach behavioral and cognitive strategies for dealing with problem Perfectionists Identify cost/benefits, decrease self- criticism, set realistic goals and time limits, and encourage acceptance of criticism 39 39 Hard-to-Reach, Low-Achieving Students Develop positive teacher-student relationships Make school more interesting Teach strategies to make learning enjoyable Consider including a mentor 40 40 Strategies for reaching uninterested or alienated students On the basis of Brophy’s research, a teacher should:  Work on developing a positive relationship with the student  Make school more intrinsically interesting for the student by finding the student’s interests and including those interests in assignments.  Teach the student strategies for making academic work more enjoyable  Enlist the aid of a mentor in the community or an older student whom the uninterested or alienated student will respect. 41 41 Addressing achievement problems involves identifying the specific problem and getting students to acknowledge it. Then, there are a variety of strategies teachers can implement to help students reduce or eliminate these problems: Efficacy training : Efficacy training seeks to Efficacy training seeks to improve students’ efficacy perceptions or belief improve students’ efficacy perceptions or belief in their ability to master a given task. The in their ability to master a given task. The primary emphasis of efficacy training primary emphasis of efficacy training is Improving students’ academic confidence. Improving students’ academic confidence. Attribution and achievement orientation retraining: Attribution retraining seeks to Attribution retraining seeks to change students’ beliefs about the change students’ beliefs about the causality of their success and the reason causality of their success and the reason behind their performance. behind their performance. Strategy training: Strategy training seeks Strategy training seeks to provide students with the learning to provide students with the learning strategies necessary to succeed. strategies necessary to succeed. The primary emphasis is improving mproving students’ domain- and task-specific skills students’ domain- and task-specific skills 42 42 Realistic goal setting: Goals should be specific, proximal and challenging. Students can set both long-term (distal) and short-term (proximal) goals, however short term goals are very important. Goals should also be challenging. Goals that are easy to reach generate little interest or effort. However goals should optimally be matched to the students skill level. If goals are unrealistically high, the results will be repeated failures that lower the students efficacy. 43 43 Expectations: Students expectations for Expectations: Students expectations for success and value they place on what they success and value they place on what they want to achieve influence their motivation. want to achieve influence their motivation. Teachers expectations have a powerful Teachers expectations have a powerful influence on students’ motivation and influence on students’ motivation and achievement. Teachers often have higher achievement. Teachers often have higher expectations for high-ability students than expectations for high-ability students than low ability students. It is important for low ability students. It is important for teachers to monitor their expectations and teachers to monitor their expectations and to have high expectations for all students. to have high expectations for all students. 44 44 Cognitive interventions: Students anxiety increases as they get older and face more evaluation, social comparison and failure. Cognitive programs that replace students’ self damaging thoughts with positive constructive thoughts have been more effective than relaxation programs in benefiting student achievement. 45 45  Values and purpose: Very few Values and purpose: Very few students engage in purposeful students engage in purposeful reflection about what they want to do reflection about what they want to do with their lives. Parents and teachers with their lives. Parents and teachers need to ask students more questions need to ask students more questions especially “why” questions to especially “why” questions to encourage them to think more deeply encourage them to think more deeply about what their purpose is. about what their purpose is. 46 46 Teachers would establish opportunities for Teachers would establish opportunities for communities of learning. Peer tutoring, communities of learning. Peer tutoring, collaborative projects and writing, and cooperative collaborative projects and writing, and cooperative learning are some examples. learning are some examples.  In general, establishing a community In general, establishing a community atmosphere for the classroom as a whole will atmosphere for the classroom as a whole will provide students with a supportive network provide students with a supportive network necessary to optimize learning necessary to optimize learning.. 47 47 Teachers can improve students’ efficacy Teachers can improve students’ efficacy by: by: teaching students specific strategies. teaching students specific strategies. helping students to set short-term helping students to set short-term goals. goals.  providing support. providing support.  monitoring student anxiety. monitoring student anxiety.  exposing students to positive models. exposing students to positive models. 48 48 Pretask Pretask Several variables influence students’ incoming Several variables influence students’ incoming motivation. motivation. Students enter tasks with various goals such as Students enter tasks with various goals such as learn the material, perform well, be the first one to learn the material, perform well, be the first one to finish. finish. Students enter tasks with various expectations. Students enter tasks with various expectations. This may involve capabilities ( self efficacy and This may involve capabilities ( self efficacy and perceptions of the consequences of learning perceptions of the consequences of learning ( outcome expectations. ( outcome expectations. Students have differing perceptions of value or Students have differing perceptions of value or perceived importance of learning. perceived importance of learning. 49 49 Pretask Con’t Pretask Con’t Students differ in their affects associated Students differ in their affects associated with learning. They may be excited, anxious with learning. They may be excited, anxious or feel no particular emotion. These affects or feel no particular emotion. These affects may relate closely to students’ needs. may relate closely to students’ needs. Social support in students lives will vary. It Social support in students lives will vary. It includes the types of assistance from includes the types of assistance from teachers, peers and parents. teachers, peers and parents. Learning often requires that others provide Learning often requires that others provide time, money, effort, transportation and so time, money, effort, transportation and so forth. forth. 50 50 During Task During Task Instructional, contextual and personal variables come Instructional, contextual and personal variables come into play during learning . into play during learning . Instructional variables include teachers, forms of Instructional variables include teachers, forms of feedback, materials and equipment. For example feedback, materials and equipment. For example teacher feedback can encourage or discourage, teacher feedback can encourage or discourage, instruction can clarify or confuse, materials can provide instruction can clarify or confuse, materials can provide for many or few successes. for many or few successes. Contextual variables include social and environmental Contextual variables include social and environmental resources. Factors such as location, time of day, resources. Factors such as location, time of day, distractions, temperature, ongoing events and the like distractions, temperature, ongoing events and the like can enhance or retard motivation.Higly competitive can enhance or retard motivation.Higly competitive conditions can affect motivation. Students social conditions can affect motivation. Students social comparisons of ability with peers directly link to comparisons of ability with peers directly link to motivation. motivation. 51 51 During Task Con’t During Task Con’t Personal variables include those associated Personal variables include those associated with learning such as knowledge construction with learning such as knowledge construction and skill acquisition, self regulation variables, and skill acquisition, self regulation variables, and motivational indexes ( choice of activities, and motivational indexes ( choice of activities, effort, persistence). effort, persistence). Students perceptions of how well they are Students perceptions of how well they are learning and of the effects of instructional , learning and of the effects of instructional , contextual, and personal variables influence contextual, and personal variables influence motivation for continued learning. motivation for continued learning. 52 52 Posttask Posttask Posttask denotes the time when the task is completed and Posttask denotes the time when the task is completed and periods of self reflection ( think about their work). periods of self reflection ( think about their work). The same variables important prior to task engagement are The same variables important prior to task engagement are critical during self reflection with the addition of attribution. critical during self reflection with the addition of attribution. Attributions ( perceived causes of outcomes). Students Attributions ( perceived causes of outcomes). Students who believe that they are progressing toward their goals and who believe that they are progressing toward their goals and make positive attributions for success are apt to sustain their make positive attributions for success are apt to sustain their self-efficacy for learning, outcome expectations, perceived self-efficacy for learning, outcome expectations, perceived value, and positive emotional climate. value, and positive emotional climate. Factors associated with instruction, such as teacher Factors associated with instruction, such as teacher feedback provide information about goal progress and feedback provide information about goal progress and outcome expectations outcome expectations 53 53