EDUC 215 Chapter 7, Fall 2009

Ch 7 Ch 7 Behavioral and Social Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches Cognitive Approaches 11 Behavioral Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approaches to Learning Learning Learning is a relatively permanent change in is a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills, that behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills, that occurs through experience. occurs through experience. There are several major approaches to learning. There are several major approaches to learning. Behaviorism: Behaviorism: Behavior is explained by Behavior is explained by observable experiences, not mental processes observable experiences, not mental processes – Mental Processes: Mental Processes: The observable The observable thoughts, feelings, and motives that we thoughts, feelings, and motives that we experience experience – Associative Learning: Associative Learning: Consists of learning Consists of learning that two events are connected or associated. that two events are connected or associated. 22 Cognitive Approaches to Learning Cognitive Approaches to Learning Psychology began to be more cognitive in the last part Psychology began to be more cognitive in the last part of the twentieth century. of the twentieth century. There are many cognitive approaches to learning but There are many cognitive approaches to learning but we are focusing on four approaches : social cognitive, we are focusing on four approaches : social cognitive, cognitive information processing, cognitive cognitive information processing, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist. constructivist, and social constructivist. 1. 1. Social cognitive approaches emphasize how behavior, Social cognitive approaches emphasize how behavior, environment, and person (cognitive factors) interact to environment, and person (cognitive factors) interact to influence learning. influence learning. 2. 2. Information processing: focuses on how children Information processing: focuses on how children process information through attention, memory, thinking process information through attention, memory, thinking and other cognitive processes . and other cognitive processes . 3. 3. cognitive constructivist emphasizes the child’s cognitive cognitive constructivist emphasizes the child’s cognitive construction of knowledge and understanding. construction of knowledge and understanding. 4. 4. Social constructivist approach focuses on collaboration Social constructivist approach focuses on collaboration with others to produce knowledge and understanding. with others to produce knowledge and understanding. Behavioral approaches to Learning Behavioral approaches to Learning Classical conditioning Operant Conditioning 44 Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning Classical conditioning is a type of is a type of learning in which an organism learns learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli. A to connect or associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus becomes associated neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. response. 55 Classical conditioning (Cont’d) Classical conditioning (Cont’d) Some stimuli can elicit a reflexive response. Some stimuli can elicit a reflexive response. The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response (UCR) are unconditioned or innate. (UCR) are unconditioned or innate. In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR) Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR) similar to that produced by the UCS. similar to that produced by the UCS. 66 Pavlov’s Early Work Pavlov’s Early Work meat powder (UCS)= meat powder (UCS)=Salivation to meat Salivation to meat (UCR) (UCR) Pairing meat with bell (CS) Pairing meat with bell (CS) causes causes salivation to bell alone (CR) salivation to bell alone (CR) 77 Classical Conditioning Principles Classical Conditioning Principles Generalization : Generalization :The tendency of a new stimulus The tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response. produce a similar response. Discrimination: Discrimination: The organism responds to The organism responds to certain stimuli but not others. certain stimuli but not others. Extinction: Extinction: The weakening of the conditioned The weakening of the conditioned response (CR) in the absence of the response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned response (UCS). unconditioned response (UCS). 88 Systematic Desensitization Systematic Desensitization  Systematic Desensitization: Systematic Desensitization: Reduces Reduces anxiety by getting the individual to anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasingly anxiety- visualizations of increasingly anxiety- producing situations. producing situations. 99 Learning Activity Learning Activity Mirna does poorly on a math test. This makes Mirna does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel anxious. From that point on, she always her feel anxious. From that point on, she always becomes anxious when taking a math test. As becomes anxious when taking a math test. As the school year progresses, she begins the school year progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she has tests in other experiencing anxiety when she has tests in other subject areas as well. subject areas as well. Q.1: Q.1: Identify the US in the example above. Identify the US in the example above. Q.2: Q.2: Identify the UR in the example above. Identify the UR in the example above. Q.3: Q.3: Identify the CS in the example above. Identify the CS in the example above. Q.4: Q.4: Identify the CR in the example above Identify the CR in the example above 10 10 Learning Activity Learning Activity Mirna does poorly on a math test. This makes Mirna does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel anxious. From that point on, she always her feel anxious. From that point on, she always becomes anxious when taking a math test. As becomes anxious when taking a math test. As the school year progresses, she begins the school year progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she has tests in other experiencing anxiety when she has tests in other subject areas as well. subject areas as well. Q: Q: Why would Mirna begin to experience anxiety Why would Mirna begin to experience anxiety in response to tests in content areas other than in response to tests in content areas other than math? math? 11 11 Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning is a form of learning in is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur. the probability that the behavior will occur. Thorndike’s Law of Effect Thorndike’s Law of Effect Behavior Positive outcome Behavior Behavior Positive outcome Behavior strengthened strengthened Behavior Negative outcome Behavior Negative outcome Behavior weakened Behavior weakened 12 12 Operant conditioning Operant conditioning Operant conditioning Operant conditioning is a form of is a form of learning in which the consequences of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur. probability that the behavior will occur. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning is at the heart of is at the heart of B.F. Skinner’s (1938) behavioral view. B.F. Skinner’s (1938) behavioral view. Consequences Consequences __ rewards and __ rewards and punishments____ are contingent on the punishments____ are contingent on the organisms behavior. organisms behavior. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning (Cont’d) Skinner’s Operant Conditioning (Cont’d) Organisms make responses that have Organisms make responses that have consequences consequences – The consequences serve to increase or decrease the The consequences serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of making that response again. likelihood of making that response again. – The response can be associated with cues in the The response can be associated with cues in the environment (these cues set the occasion for the environment (these cues set the occasion for the response) response) E.g., we put coins in a machine to obtain food E.g., we put coins in a machine to obtain food But we refrain when an “ But we refrain when an “Out of Order” Out of Order” sign is placed on the sign is placed on the machine machine Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Positive Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Punishment Punishment Extinction Extinction Operant Conditioning )Cont’d) Operant Conditioning )Cont’d)  In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue and does In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue and does not elicit the response. not elicit the response.  Operant responses are voluntary. Operant responses are voluntary.  In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive response. elicits the reflexive response. 16 16 Operant Conditioning Principles Operant Conditioning Principles Generalization: Generalization: Giving the same response Giving the same response to similar stimuli. to similar stimuli. Discrimination: Discrimination: Differentiating among stimuli or Differentiating among stimuli or environmental events. environmental events. Extinction: Extinction: Previously reinforced response is no Previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases. longer reinforced and the response decreases. 17 17 Classical conditioning Classical conditioning Generalization is the tendency Generalization is the tendency of a stimulus similar to the of a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus to conditioned stimulus to produce a response similar to produce a response similar to the conditioned response. the conditioned response. Discrimination means Discrimination means responding to certain stimuli responding to certain stimuli but not others but not others Extinction occurs when a Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced response previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the is no longer reinforced and the response decreases response decreases Operant conditioning Operant conditioning Generalization means giving Generalization means giving the same response to similar the same response to similar stimuli. stimuli. Discrimination involves Discrimination involves differentiating among stimuli or differentiating among stimuli or environmental events environmental events Extinction occurs when a Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced response previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the is no longer reinforced and the response decreases response decreases Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory into Practice Theory into Practice Ali frequently gets out of his seat and entertains Ali frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. his classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Danny often scolds Ali for his behavior. Danny often scolds Ali for his behavior. However, Ali’s classmates laugh when Ali makes However, Ali’s classmates laugh when Ali makes remarks. The scolding rarely has any impact. Ali remarks. The scolding rarely has any impact. Ali continues with his antics. continues with his antics. Q.1: Q.1: What is Mr. Danny attempting to do when What is Mr. Danny attempting to do when he scolds Ali ? he scolds Ali ? Q.2: Q.2: Why does Ali continue his antics in spite of Why does Ali continue his antics in spite of being scolded? being scolded? Q.3: Q.3: What are three strategies Mr. Danny could What are three strategies Mr. Danny could try to keep Ali more on task? try to keep Ali more on task? 19 19 Reinforcement Schedules Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-Ratio: Fixed-Ratio: Reinforce after a set number of Reinforce after a set number of appropriate responses appropriate responses Variable-Ratio: Variable-Ratio: Reinforce after an average but Reinforce after an average but unpredictable number of appropriate responses unpredictable number of appropriate responses Fixed-Interval: Fixed-Interval: Reinforce appropriate response Reinforce appropriate response after a fixed amount of time after a fixed amount of time Variable-Interval: Variable-Interval: Reinforce appropriate response Reinforce appropriate response after a variable amount of time after a variable amount of time 20 20 Applied Behavior Analysis Applied Behavior Analysis Applied Behavior Analysis Applied Behavior Analysis is applying is applying principles of operant conditioning to change principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior. human behavior.  Choose effective reinforces Choose effective reinforces  Make reinforces contingent and timely Make reinforces contingent and timely  Select the best reinforcement schedule Select the best reinforcement schedule  Consider contracting Consider contracting  Use prompts and shaping Use prompts and shaping  Use negative reinforcement effectively Use negative reinforcement effectively Reinforcement: The Premack principle Reinforcement: The Premack principle The The Premack principle Premack principle states that a high- states that a high- probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity. low-probability activity. ““Eat your dinner and you can go out to play. Eat your dinner and you can go out to play.”” Guidelines for the Classroom: Guidelines for the Classroom: • Initial learning is better with Initial learning is better with continuous continuous reinforcement. reinforcement. • Students on Students on fixed schedules fixed schedules show less show less persistence, faster response extinction. persistence, faster response extinction. • Students show greatest persistence on Students show greatest persistence on variable- variable- interval schedule. interval schedule. 22 22 Differential Reinforcement Strategies: Differential Reinforcement Strategies: Prompts and Shaping Prompts and Shaping  Prompts: Prompts: Added stimuli that are given just before the Added stimuli that are given just before the likelihood that the behavior will occur. likelihood that the behavior will occur. 1. 1. Use to initiate behavior. Use to initiate behavior. 2. 2. Once desired behavior is consistent, remove Once desired behavior is consistent, remove prompts. prompts.  Shaping: Shaping: Involves teaching new behaviors by Involves teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior. behavior. 1. 1. First, reward any response. First, reward any response. 2. 2. Next, reward responses that resemble the desired Next, reward responses that resemble the desired behavior. behavior. 3. 3. Finally, reward only target behavior. Finally, reward only target behavior. 23 23 Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors Use Use differential reinforcement differential reinforcement by by reinforcing more appropriate behavior. reinforcing more appropriate behavior. Withdraw positive reinforcement Withdraw positive reinforcement (extinction) from a child’s inappropriate (extinction) from a child’s inappropriate behavior. behavior. Remove desirable stimuli Remove desirable stimuli through “time- through “time- out” and “response cost.” out” and “response cost.” Present aversive stimuli Present aversive stimuli (punishment). (punishment). 24 24 Debate Debate Should teachers use tangible reinforcers Should teachers use tangible reinforcers for good behavior? for good behavior? 25 25 Reflection & Observation Reflection & Observation Reflection: Reflection: In your educational experience, what In your educational experience, what types of incentives did teachers use? types of incentives did teachers use? How effective was their use? Why How effective was their use? Why were they effective or ineffective? were they effective or ineffective? 26 26 Social Cognitive Approaches to Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning Learning Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Social, cognitive, Social, cognitive, and and behavioral behavioral factors play factors play important roles in learning. important roles in learning. Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. situation and produce positive outcomes. Observational learning Observational learning occurs when a person occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behavior. observes and imitates someone else’s behavior. 27 27 Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism P/C Personal and cognitive factors E Environment B Behavior Observational Learning Observational Learning Attention: Attention: Students must attend to what the Students must attend to what the model is doing or saying before imitating a model is doing or saying before imitating a model’s action. model’s action. Retention: Retention: Students must code the information Students must code the information and keep it in memory so that they retrieve it. and keep it in memory so that they retrieve it. Production: Production: Students must be able to Students must be able to reproduce the model’s behavior. reproduce the model’s behavior. Some children might attend and code in memory Some children might attend and code in memory but because of limitations in their motor ability but because of limitations in their motor ability not be able to reproduce the model’s behavior. not be able to reproduce the model’s behavior. Motivation: Motivation: Students must be motivated to Students must be motivated to imitate the modeled behavior imitate the modeled behavior 29 29 Bandura’s Contemporary Model of Bandura’s Contemporary Model of Observational Learning Observational Learning Attention Students are more likely to be attentive to high-status models (teachers). Production Poor motor ability inhibits reproduction of the model’s behavior. Help improve skills. Retention Students retention will be improved when teachers give logical and clear demonstrations Motivation When given a reinforcement, modeling increases. 30 30 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Theory into Practice Theory into Practice • Mohamad Mohamad frequently gets out of his seat and frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his classmates with humorous entertains his classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Yousef often scolds Mohamad remarks. Mr. Yousef often scolds Mohamad f for or his behavior. However, Mohamad his behavior. However, Mohamad ’s classmates ’s classmates laugh when Mohamad laugh when Mohamad makes remarks. The makes remarks. The scolding rarely has any impact. Mohamad scolding rarely has any impact. Mohamad continues with his antics. After several days of continues with his antics. After several days of this, other boys in the class begin to get out of this, other boys in the class begin to get out of their seats and make humorous remarks as well. their seats and make humorous remarks as well. Q.1: Q.1: Why do the other boys begin to Why do the other boys begin to misbehave? Explain. misbehave? Explain. Q.2: Q.2: What does this say about Mohamad What does this say about Mohamad ? ? 31 31 Classroom Use of Observational Learning Classroom Use of Observational Learning Demonstrate and teach new behaviors Demonstrate and teach new behaviors Decide what type of model you will be Decide what type of model you will be Use peers as effective models Use peers as effective models Use mentors as models Use mentors as models Consider the models children observe in Consider the models children observe in the media the media 32 32 Self-Regulatory Learning Self-Regulatory Learning Self-Regulatory Learning Self-Regulatory Learning Self-regulation Self-regulation involves the ability to self-regulate by monitoring involves the ability to self-regulate by monitoring your own progress, setting goals that are your own progress, setting goals that are proximal, specific, and challenging, and proximal, specific, and challenging, and managing time more effectively. managing time more effectively. These goals might be academic such as These goals might be academic such as improving comprehension while reading, improving comprehension while reading, becoming more organized writer, learning how to becoming more organized writer, learning how to do multiplications or they might be do multiplications or they might be socioemotional such as controlling one’s anger, socioemotional such as controlling one’s anger, getting along better with peers. getting along better with peers. 33 33 A Model of Self-Regulatory Learning A Model of Self-Regulatory Learning Self-Evaluation and Monitoring Monitoring Outcomes and Refining Strategies Goal Setting and Strategic Planning Putting a Plan into Action and Monitoring it 34 34 Self-efficacy Self-efficacy Self-efficacy is our belief that we can Self-efficacy is our belief that we can master a situation and produce positive master a situation and produce positive outcomes. outcomes. Self-efficacy influences the choice of Self-efficacy influences the choice of behaviors we undertake, our persistence behaviors we undertake, our persistence in those activities, and our attitude as we in those activities, and our attitude as we approach these behaviors. approach these behaviors.