EDUC 215 Chapter 2, Fall 2009

11 Cognitive and Language Cognitive and Language Development Development Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology The focus of developmental psychology is on age- The focus of developmental psychology is on age- related changes in behaviors throughout the life related changes in behaviors throughout the life span. span. Development Development: The pattern of biological, : The pattern of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional changes that cognitive, and socioemotional changes that begins at conception and continues through begins at conception and continues through the life span. the life span. 22 Developmental Processes Developmental Processes Biological processes Biological processes and and genetic inheritance genetic inheritance – Development of the brain Development of the brain – Gains in height and weight Gains in height and weight – Changes in motor skills Changes in motor skills – Puberty’s hormonal changes Puberty’s hormonal changes Cognitive processes Cognitive processes – Changes in the child’s thinking Changes in the child’s thinking – Intelligence Intelligence – Language Language acquisition acquisition 33 Socioemotional processes Socioemotional processes – Changes in the child’s relationships Changes in the child’s relationships with other people with other people – Changes in personality Changes in personality 44 Key developmental issues include: Key developmental issues include: Nature versus nurture Nature versus nurture To what extent development is influenced by nature To what extent development is influenced by nature (biological inheritance, maturation) or the result of (biological inheritance, maturation) or the result of nurture (environmental experiences)? nurture (environmental experiences)? Continuity-Discontinuity Issue Continuity-Discontinuity Issue To what extent development involves gradual, To what extent development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity ) or distinct stages cumulative change (continuity ) or distinct stages (discontinuity) ? (discontinuity) ? Early-Later Experience Issue Early-Later Experience Issue To which degree early experiences especially in infancy To which degree early experiences especially in infancy or later experiences are the key determinants of child's or later experiences are the key determinants of child's development. development. 55 Development and Education Development and Education Developmentally appropriate teaching Developmentally appropriate teaching practices practices Teaching should take place at a level that Teaching should take place at a level that is neither too difficult nor too easy is neither too difficult nor too easy and boring. and boring. 66 Life Span Development Life Span Development Stage Stage Approximate Age Approximate Age Prenatal Prenatal Conception to birth Conception to birth Infancy Infancy Birth to 18 months Birth to 18 months Early childhood Early childhood 18 mo. to 6 years 18 mo. to 6 years Middle childhood Middle childhood 6–12 years 6–12 years Adolescence Adolescence 12–20 years 12–20 years Young adulthood Young adulthood 20–45 years 20–45 years Middle adulthood Middle adulthood 45–60 years 45–60 years Later adulthood Later adulthood 60 years to death 60 years to death 77 Cognitive and Language Cognitive and Language Development Development Cognitive Development The Brain Piaget’s Theory Vygotsky’s Theory 88 Brain Growth Brain Growth 99 Neurons Neurons Neurons are specialized cells that detect Neurons are specialized cells that detect sensory events, relay messages to the brain, sensory events, relay messages to the brain, and control our muscles and control our muscles Neurons are composed of three major parts: Neurons are composed of three major parts: – Soma Soma or cell body, controls the synthesis of or cell body, controls the synthesis of transmitters and other cell functions transmitters and other cell functions – Dendrites Dendrites receive information from adjacent receive information from adjacent neurons neurons – Axons Axons form synapses with other neurons form synapses with other neurons 10 10 Neuron Structure Neuron Structure 11 11 Myelination Myelination Myelination Myelination increases the speed at which increases the speed at which information travels through the nervous information travels through the nervous system system 12 12 Brain Lateralization the specialization of functions in one Brain Lateralization the specialization of functions in one hemisphere of the brain or the other. hemisphere of the brain or the other. Verbal Processing Verbal Processing In most individuals, In most individuals, speech and grammar speech and grammar are localized in the left are localized in the left hemisphere hemisphere Nonverbal Processing Nonverbal Processing Spatial perception, Spatial perception, visual recognition, and visual recognition, and emotions are localized emotions are localized in the right hemisphere in the right hemisphere.. 13 13 Piaget’s Cognitive Theory Piaget’s Cognitive Theory  Cognitive processes: Cognitive processes: What processes do children use What processes do children use as they construct their knowledge of the world? as they construct their knowledge of the world? Cognitive reasoning is primitive at birth and changes Cognitive reasoning is primitive at birth and changes from infancy to adulthood. from infancy to adulthood. These processes include : These processes include :  Schemas: Schemas: Schemas are the basic units of intellect. Schemas are the basic units of intellect.  Piaget said as the child seeks to construct an Piaget said as the child seeks to construct an understanding of the world, the developing brain creates understanding of the world, the developing brain creates schemas. schemas. These schemas are actions or mental representations These schemas are actions or mental representations that organize knowledge. that organize knowledge. 14 14 Cognitive adaptation reflects the actions of Cognitive adaptation reflects the actions of two complementary processes: two complementary processes: – Assimilation Assimilation allows an existing schema to allows an existing schema to adapt to the environment. adapt to the environment. – Accommodation Accommodation allows the schema to allows the schema to change in order to handle a new change in order to handle a new environmental situation. environmental situation. 15 15 Piagetian Cognition Piagetian Cognition 16 16 Organization Organization: To make sense out of the : To make sense out of the world, children cognitively organize their world, children cognitively organize their experiences. experiences. Organization is the grouping of isolated Organization is the grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher order behaviors and thoughts into a higher order system. system. Continual refinement of this organization is Continual refinement of this organization is an inherent part of development. an inherent part of development. 17 17 Equilibration and stages of development: Equilibration and stages of development: Equilibration is a mechanism that Piaget propose Equilibration is a mechanism that Piaget propose to explain how children shift from one stage of to explain how children shift from one stage of thought to the next. thought to the next.  The shift occurs as children experience cognitive The shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict, or disequilibrium, in trying to understand conflict, or disequilibrium, in trying to understand the world. Eventually they resolve the conflict the world. Eventually they resolve the conflict and reach a balance or equilibrium. and reach a balance or equilibrium. 18 18 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Development Sensorimotor period: Sensorimotor period: Birth through age 2 Birth through age 2 – Infant schemes are simple reflexes and interactions Infant schemes are simple reflexes and interactions with people and objects with people and objects Preoperational period Preoperational period: Age 2 to 7 : Age 2 to 7 – Child begins to use mental representations, but Child begins to use mental representations, but problem solving is limited problem solving is limited Concrete operations: Concrete operations: Age 7 to 11 Age 7 to 11 – Child performs mental operations (conservation) Child performs mental operations (conservation) Formal operations: Formal operations: Age 12 through adulthood Age 12 through adulthood – Child can use formal problem solving and higher-level Child can use formal problem solving and higher-level abstract thinking abstract thinking 19 19 The Sensorimotor Stage The Sensorimotor Stage Birth through age 2 Birth through age 2 The infant constructs an understanding of the The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory world by coordinating sensory experiences( hearing, seeing) with physical experiences( hearing, seeing) with physical actions( reaching, touching). actions( reaching, touching). An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual actions at birth to the beginning of symbolic actions at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage. thought toward the end of the stage. Infant schemes are simple reflexes and Infant schemes are simple reflexes and interactions with people and objects interactions with people and objects Infants acquire a basic grasp of the concept of Infants acquire a basic grasp of the concept of cause and effect. cause and effect. 20 20 The Sensorimotor Stage Con’t The Sensorimotor Stage Con’t Coordination of Coordination of sensory experiences sensory experiences with with motor actions motor actions .Infants seem to know the world .Infants seem to know the world only through motor activities and sensory only through motor activities and sensory impressions impressions Have not yet learned to use mental symbols or Have not yet learned to use mental symbols or images to represent objects images to represent objects Acquire Acquire object permanence object permanence ( (the realization that the realization that objects continue to exist over time) at the end of objects continue to exist over time) at the end of the stage. the stage. Another accomplishment is the gradual Another accomplishment is the gradual realization that there is a difference between realization that there is a difference between oneself and the surrounding environment at the oneself and the surrounding environment at the end of the sensorimotor stage. end of the sensorimotor stage. 21 21 The Preoperational Stage The Preoperational Stage Age 2 to 7 Age 2 to 7 At this stage symbolic thought increases but At this stage symbolic thought increases but operational thought is not yet present operational thought is not yet present Preoperational thought can be subdivided into Preoperational thought can be subdivided into two substages : two substages : 1. The symbolic function stage (2-4years): 1. The symbolic function stage (2-4years): 2. The intuitive stage(4-7years) 2. The intuitive stage(4-7years) The symbolic function stage The symbolic function stage Child begins to use mental representations, but Child begins to use mental representations, but problem solving is limited problem solving is limited Child begins to demonstrate symbolic play Child begins to demonstrate symbolic play Childs thought has two important limitations Childs thought has two important limitations egocentrism and animism. egocentrism and animism. 22 22 The Preoperational Stage Con’t The Preoperational Stage Con’t Egocentrism: Egocentrism: The inability of young The inability of young children to understand that others may children to understand that others may perceive the world differently than they do perceive the world differently than they do Animism: Animism: It is the belief that inanimate It is the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action capable of action 23 23 The Preoperational Stage Con’t The Preoperational Stage Con’t The intuitive stage The intuitive stage Child begins to use primitive reasoning and want to know Child begins to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answer to all sorts of questions. the answer to all sorts of questions. Child seems to be so sure about his/her knowledge Child seems to be so sure about his/her knowledge Many of the thoughts are characterized by centration and Many of the thoughts are characterized by centration and lack of conservation lack of conservation Centration: Centration: It is a characteristic of thought that involves It is a characteristic of thought that involves focusing (or centering ) attention on one characteristic to focusing (or centering ) attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others the exclusion of all others Lack of conservation: Lack of conservation: Do not understand that certain Do not understand that certain physical attributes of an object remain unchanged even physical attributes of an object remain unchanged even though its outward appearance changes though its outward appearance changes 24 24 Conservation of Liquid Conservation of Liquid 25 25 Concrete Operations Concrete Operations Age 7 to 11 Age 7 to 11 At this stage logical reasoning At this stage logical reasoning replaces intuitive replaces intuitive reasoning, but only in reasoning, but only in concrete concrete situations. situations. At this stage the child begins to represent the world with At this stage the child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical actions. of sensory information and physical actions. The child can now reason logically about concrete events The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets. and classify objects into different sets. The child performs mental operations (conservation) The child performs mental operations (conservation) The emergence of logical thought The emergence of logical thought Become aware of the permanence of objects Become aware of the permanence of objects Understand Understand reversibility which is reversibility which is the fact that many the fact that many physical changes can be undone by a reversal of the physical changes can be undone by a reversal of the original action original action 26 26 Concrete Operations Con’t Concrete Operations Con’t Conservation: Conservation: The idea that some characteristics of The idea that some characteristics of an object stay the same even though the object an object stay the same even though the object might change in appearance. might change in appearance. Classification: Classification: Coordinate several characteristics Coordinate several characteristics rather than focus on a single property of an object. rather than focus on a single property of an object. Seriation: Seriation: Order stimuli along some quantitative Order stimuli along some quantitative dimension. dimension. Transitivity: Transitivity: Combine relations to understand certain Combine relations to understand certain conclusions. conclusions. IfIf A>B, A>B, and and B>C, B>C, then then A>C. A>C. 27 27 Formal Operations Formal Operations Age 12 through adulthood Age 12 through adulthood At this stage the child can use formal problem At this stage the child can use formal problem solving and higher-level abstract thinking . solving and higher-level abstract thinking . Can now deal with abstractions rather than just Can now deal with abstractions rather than just concrete objects concrete objects Becomes capable of hypothetico-deductive Becomes capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning (forming a general theory and reasoning (forming a general theory and deducing specific hypotheses from it). deducing specific hypotheses from it). The adolescent reasons in more abstract, The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways. idealistic, and logical ways. 28 28 Teaching strategies Teaching strategies Preoperational Thinkers Preoperational Thinkers Manipulate groups of objects Manipulate groups of objects Reduce egocentrism Reduce egocentrism Draw conclusions and explain why Draw conclusions and explain why Concrete Operations Concrete Operations Encourage children to discover concepts and Encourage children to discover concepts and principles principles Assign operational tasks Assign operational tasks Formal Operations Formal Operations Propose problems and encourage hypothesis Propose problems and encourage hypothesis formation formation Suggest alternative approaches to problems Suggest alternative approaches to problems Develop projects and investigations Develop projects and investigations 29 29 Limitations of Piaget’s view of cognitive Limitations of Piaget’s view of cognitive development development First, some cognitive abilities are First, some cognitive abilities are suspected to emerge earlier or later than suspected to emerge earlier or later than depicted by Piaget. depicted by Piaget. Second, emerging aspects of each stage Second, emerging aspects of each stage may not appear in synchrony. Rather, a may not appear in synchrony. Rather, a child may develop conservation long child may develop conservation long before he or she learns to cross-classify. before he or she learns to cross-classify. Hence, some developmentalists argue Hence, some developmentalists argue that development is not as stage-like as that development is not as stage-like as suggested by Piaget. suggested by Piaget. 30 30 Limitations of Piaget’s view of cognitive Limitations of Piaget’s view of cognitive development con’t development con’t Third, it has been shown, contrary to Third, it has been shown, contrary to Piaget’s beliefs, that children can be Piaget’s beliefs, that children can be trained to perform cognitive tasks that are trained to perform cognitive tasks that are beyond their current cognitive stages. beyond their current cognitive stages. Fourth, culture and education seem to Fourth, culture and education seem to exert stronger influences on children’s exert stronger influences on children’s development than Piaget believed. development than Piaget believed. 31 31 Leaning activity Leaning activity Leila , Ralph , and several of their classmates Leila , Ralph , and several of their classmates are playing hide-and-go-seek during indoor are playing hide-and-go-seek during indoor recess one rainy day. Leila carefully conceals recess one rainy day. Leila carefully conceals her entire body behind Mrs. Batlouni her entire body behind Mrs. Batlouni ’s long ’s long smock. In contrast, Ralph hides only his upper smock. In contrast, Ralph hides only his upper body behind a jacket hanging on a hook. He body behind a jacket hanging on a hook. He giggles, sure that his classmates will never see giggles, sure that his classmates will never see him. him. Q: Q: Based on the information given above, at which Based on the information given above, at which of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is Ralph most likely operating? Explain. Ralph most likely operating? Explain. 32 32 Leaning activity Leaning activity Mr. Mohammad has a sand table in his kindergarten Mr. Mohammad has a sand table in his kindergarten classroom. He provides his students with many classroom. He provides his students with many containers of different sizes and shapes to play with in containers of different sizes and shapes to play with in the sand. He watches as his students carefully pour the sand. He watches as his students carefully pour sand from one container to another. One little girl, Mona, sand from one container to another. One little girl, Mona, seems amazed when she pours sand back and forth seems amazed when she pours sand back and forth between two containers. The sand always fills up one between two containers. The sand always fills up one container and only half-fills the other, yet the containers container and only half-fills the other, yet the containers are the same height. are the same height. Q: Q: Based on the information given above, what skill is Based on the information given above, what skill is Mona most likely developing? Explain. Mona most likely developing? Explain. 33 33 Leaning activity Leaning activity Mr. Munir teaches high school English. He always asks Mr. Munir teaches high school English. He always asks his students to find the symbolism in the great works of his students to find the symbolism in the great works of literature he assigns. Some students do this with relative literature he assigns. Some students do this with relative ease. For others it is a real struggle. Many are only able ease. For others it is a real struggle. Many are only able to parrot back what he has told them in class. to parrot back what he has told them in class. Q.1: Q.1: At which of Piaget’s stages are those who At which of Piaget’s stages are those who understand the symbolism in literature likely operating? understand the symbolism in literature likely operating? Q.2: Q.2: At which of Piaget’s stages are those who cannot At which of Piaget’s stages are those who cannot understand the symbolism in literature likely operating? understand the symbolism in literature likely operating? 34 34 Vygotsky’s Theory Vygotsky’s Theory Levy Levy Vygotsky Vygotsky proposed another major proposed another major theory of cognitive development. theory of cognitive development. Vygotsky Vygotsky argued that children develop argued that children develop more systematic, logical, and rational more systematic, logical, and rational concepts as a result of dialogue with a concepts as a result of dialogue with a skilled helper. skilled helper. Thus, in Vygotsky’s theory, other people Thus, in Vygotsky’s theory, other people and language play key roles in a child’s and language play key roles in a child’s development. development. 35 35 Vygotsky Theory Con’t Vygotsky Theory Con’t Vygotsky Vygotsky said that language and thought said that language and thought develop independently of each other and then develop independently of each other and then merge. merge. Speech is not only used for social Speech is not only used for social communication but also to help them solve communication but also to help them solve tasks. tasks. He believed that children use language to He believed that children use language to plan, guide , and monitor their behavior. This plan, guide , and monitor their behavior. This use of language for self regulation is called use of language for self regulation is called private speech. private speech. 36 36 Vygotsky Theory Con’t Vygotsky Theory Con’t Vygotsky Vygotsky believed that cognitive believed that cognitive skills: skills: Can be understood when they are Can be understood when they are developmentally analyzed developmentally analyzed Are mediated by words, language, and Are mediated by words, language, and forms of discourse forms of discourse Have their origins in social relations and Have their origins in social relations and culture culture 37 37 Zone of Proximal Development Zone of Proximal Development Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)is a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)is a term that was coined by Vygotsky for the term that was coined by Vygotsky for the range of tasks that are too difficult for range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be children to master alone but can be mastered with guidance and assistance mastered with guidance and assistance from adults or more skilled children. from adults or more skilled children. Vygotsky believed that difficult tasks cant Vygotsky believed that difficult tasks cant be performed by the child alone and be performed by the child alone and therefore requires assistance and therefore requires assistance and guidance. guidance. 38 38 Zone of Proximal Development Con’t Zone of Proximal Development Con’t  The ZPD has a lower limit and an upper limit. The ZPD has a lower limit and an upper limit.  The lower limit of the zone of proximal The lower limit of the zone of proximal development is the level of problem solving development is the level of problem solving reached on these tasks by child working alone. reached on these tasks by child working alone.  The upper limit of the zone of proximal The upper limit of the zone of proximal development is the level of additional development is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor assistance of an able instructor 39 39 Scaffolding Scaffolding Scaffolding Scaffolding is a technique that is closely linked is a technique that is closely linked to ZPD that involves changing the level of to ZPD that involves changing the level of support for learning. support for learning. AA teacher adjusts the level teacher adjusts the level of support and guidance as performance rises in of support and guidance as performance rises in order to fit the student’s current performance. order to fit the student’s current performance. Dialogue is an important tool of scaffolding in Dialogue is an important tool of scaffolding in ZPD. ZPD. Asking probing questions is an excellent way to Asking probing questions is an excellent way to scaffold student’s learning. scaffold student’s learning. 40 40 Teaching strategies for applying Vygotsky’s Teaching strategies for applying Vygotsky’s theory to children’s education. theory to children’s education. The teaching strategies for applying Vygotsky’s theory to The teaching strategies for applying Vygotsky’s theory to children’s education are: children’s education are: (a) Vygotsky’s use of zone of proximal development, (a) Vygotsky’s use of zone of proximal development, (b) Vygotsky’s use of scaffolding, (b) Vygotsky’s use of scaffolding, (c) using more skilled peers, (c) using more skilled peers, (d) encouraging collaborative learning and recognizing that (d) encouraging collaborative learning and recognizing that learning and knowledge are mutually built and learning and knowledge are mutually built and constructed, constructed, (e) considering the cultural context of learning, (e) considering the cultural context of learning, (f ) assessing the ZPD, not IQ (f ) assessing the ZPD, not IQ 41 41 Piaget versus Vygotsky Piaget versus Vygotsky Piaget: Piaget: Constructivist approach Constructivist approach Piaget believed that self- Piaget believed that self- talk reflected immaturity. talk reflected immaturity. Piaget believed that Piaget believed that children construct children construct knowledge through knowledge through internal processes, internal processes, View the teacher as a View the teacher as a facilitator or guide. facilitator or guide. According to Piaget, According to Piaget, language plays a minor language plays a minor role. role. Vygotsky: Vygotsky: Social constructivist approach Social constructivist approach believed that children who believed that children who engage in “private speech” are engage in “private speech” are more socially competent than more socially competent than children who do not. children who do not. Vygotsky believed that private Vygotsky believed that private speech represents an early speech represents an early transition in becoming more transition in becoming more socially communicative socially communicative Vygotsky emphasized external Vygotsky emphasized external processes. processes. View the teacher as a facilitator View the teacher as a facilitator or guide. or guide. 42 42 Learning activity Learning activity Ali is having difficulty with math assignment. His teacher Ali is having difficulty with math assignment. His teacher helps him work through the first problem step-by-step. Ali helps him work through the first problem step-by-step. Ali begins to understand the concepts and begins the other begins to understand the concepts and begins the other problems. Sara also struggles with the assignment. problems. Sara also struggles with the assignment. However, even when Ms. Farah works through the first However, even when Ms. Farah works through the first problem with her, she still cannot grasp how to do the problem with her, she still cannot grasp how to do the remaining problems. Meanwhile, Nada has breezed remaining problems. Meanwhile, Nada has breezed through the assignment with no difficulty at all. through the assignment with no difficulty at all. Q.1: Q.1: What would Vygotsky say about the assignment for What would Vygotsky say about the assignment for Ali ? Ali ? Q.2: Q.2: What would Vygotsky say about the assignment for What would Vygotsky say about the assignment for Sara? Sara? 43 43 Learning activity Learning activity Peter is having difficulty with math assignment. His Peter is having difficulty with math assignment. His teacher helps him work through the first problem step- teacher helps him work through the first problem step- by-step. Peter begins to understand the concepts and by-step. Peter begins to understand the concepts and begins the other problems. Suzanne also struggles with begins the other problems. Suzanne also struggles with the assignment. However, even when Ms. Masri the assignment. However, even when Ms. Masri works works through the first problem with her, she still cannot grasp through the first problem with her, she still cannot grasp how to do the remaining problems. Meanwhile, Hanadi how to do the remaining problems. Meanwhile, Hanadi has breezed through the assignment with no difficulty at has